The rapid changes and increased complexity of today’s world present new
challenges and put new demands on our education system. There has been
generally a growing awareness of the necessity to change and improve the
preparation of students for productive functioning in the continually changing
and highly demanding environment. In confronting this challenge it is necessary
to consider the complexity of the education system itself and the multitude of
problems that must be addressed. Clearly, no simple, single uniform approach
can be applied with the expectation that significant improvements of the system
will occur.
Indeed, any strategy for change must contend with the diverse factors
affecting the education system, the interactions of its parts, and the
intricate interdependencies within it and with its environment.
As we consider these problems, we become increasingly cognizant of the
various possibilities of using concepts and methods of the study of complex
systems for providing direction and strategies to facilitate the introduction
of viable and successful changes. A key insight from complex systems is that simple
solutions are not likely to be effective in cases such as the education system,
and that providing a balance or coexistence of what seem to be opposites may
provide the greatest opportunities for successful courses of action. In the
following we consider
Integrating the commonly polarized goals of education; i.e. the goal that
focuses on transmitting knowledge with the goal that emphasizes the development
of the individual student.
Adapting teaching to different student characteristics by using diverse methods
of teaching. Adaptation to the ability levels, patterns of different abilities,
learning styles, personality characteristics, and cultural backgrounds.
Integrating the curriculum by developing inter-disciplinary curriculum
units that enable students to acquire knowledge from different disciplines
through a unifying theme while having the opportunity to contribute in
different and special ways to the objectives of the integrated units.
Educational Goals
The approaches to teaching can be categorized according to major
educational goals that affect teaching strategies. On one hand the goal of
education is viewed as the transmission of knowledge by the teachers to the
students. On the other hand the goal of education is viewed as facilitating
students’ autonomous learning and self expression. The former approach which
converges toward the teaching of specified subject matter, may be termed
‘convergent’ teaching and the latter approach which stresses open ended
self-directed learning may be termed ‘divergent’ teaching. The convergent
approach is highly structured and teacher-centered; the students are passive
recipients of knowledge transmitted to them and learning achievements are
measured by standardized tests. The divergent approach is flexible, student-centered,
where the students are active participants in the learning process and learning
achievements are assessed by a variety of evaluation tools such as
self-evaluation in parallel to teacher evaluation; documentation portfolios;
and special projects (see also Niche Selection (link to be added soon)).
In the highly complex education system there may be various combinations of
the different approaches to teaching and probably no ‘pure’ convergent or
divergent teaching. Still, the tendency in the education system of today is
toward the convergent approach. In fact, among the current suggestions for
implementing educational reforms to deal with the considerable problems of the
education system, there has been a strong emphasis on setting convergent goals,
an aspect of which is the use of across-the-board standardized testing. Testing
has been commonly viewed as a prudent way to determine the success or failure
of the teaching and learning process. There has been a relatively limited use
of other means of evaluation which are more complicated and more demanding in
terms of application and interpretation.
As educators seek ways to meet the demands put upon the education system in
today’s world of rapid changes and ever increasing complexity, it may be
helpful to recognize that there is a need for both convergent and divergent
approaches to teaching and learning. Educators who stress the importance of the
acquisition of specific knowledge as a useful way to prepare the students for
productive future functioning, must come to realize that even for the purpose
of this goal alone, a divergent approach is needed today. With the great
proliferation of knowledge and rapid changes in most fields as well as the
appearance of many new fields, it is critical to develop students’ capacity for
self-directed learning and self growth. On the other hand, those who emphasize
the importance of autonomous growth and creative self-expression, must realize
that the students need academic skills (such as reading, writing, calculating,
etc.) as prerequisites for productive self expression. Since the creative
process involves new ways of using existing knowledge, it is important to
provide opportunities for students to acquire such knowledge (which can be
acquired by convergent teaching). Hence, convergent and divergent teaching
strategies are both needed and the challenging question is how to find the
balance between them within the complexity of the process of teaching and
learning. It is likely that the two approaches may increasingly become not
mutually exclusive but interrelated and interdependent.
An important development is the growing awareness that academic achievement
could improve by adapting teaching to students individual differences. This
awareness is finding its most distinct expression in the education system’s
attempts to deal with the issues of students with special needs. However, other
aspects of adaptation to students’ individual differences get far less
attention.
In general, adaptation to individual differences under convergent teaching
tends to be limited. The students are all expected to strive toward one goal of
learning specified required knowledge; some may attain it and others may fall
by the wayside or be given some remediation with limited results. Nevertheless,
there are various possibilities of effective adaptation to individual
differences under convergent teaching. In addition to adaptation in the rate of
learning, where each student can be allowed to work at his/her own pace, there
are many possibilities of adaptation through the use of diverse methods of
teaching. Even when all the students are taught the same material, teachers can
use different methods, different techniques or different media, to cater to
individual differences in abilities and personality characteristics. Such a
‘multi-convergent’ approach can be more effective in giving the students
opportunities to use their aptitudes and inclinations for learning and
attaining higher achievements. As the students experience success and
consequently a sense of competence, their motivation is enhanced to pursue
further learning. Such an approach has a better potential for success than the
common reality of students with learning difficulties, who often struggle
through remediation with a sense of inadequacy and discouraging experiences of
failure.
Adaptation to individual differences under divergent teaching may be
expected to be productive because of its emphasis on student autonomous,
active, self-reliant learning. Yet, there are students who may not function
well under divergent conditions because of their strong need for guidance,
direction, and structure. Divergent teaching can cater to such needs by
individual guidance, along with ongoing assessment and subsequent
modifications. This is a ‘guided-divergent’ approach which is more structured
and less flexible than the open divergent teaching but less narrow and limiting
than convergent teaching.
Teaching Strategies and Students Characteristics
Among the most difficult problems faced by the education system are those
associated with teaching effectiveness. The current preparation of teachers for
specific age levels, specific subject matter, specific academic skills, etc.,
does not take into consideration sufficiently the complexity of factors such as
students’ various characteristics. There is a strong need to train teachers to
adapt instruction to the diverse student abilities, learning styles,
personality traits and needs by using more differentiated teaching strategies
(See also Complexity in the Classroom (link to be added soon)).
In addition to the preparation of teachers to more differentiated teaching,
there could be more divergent use of teaching resources. Worthwhile teaching
can be done with advantageous results by persons other than the traditional
classroom teachers. For example, valuable teaching can be done by peers of
different ages and abilities. Also, parents, grandparents, and relatives could
participate in and contribute productively to the teaching process.
Furthermore, teaching can be enhanced by volunteers, retirees, people with
various areas of expertise from the worlds of science, business, engineering,
medicine, public service, entertainment, and others. Also, high-tech resources
such as multimedia technology, computer programs, telecommunication, the
Internet, audio-visual techniques, and others can provide beneficial options.
Student learning can be greatly enriched further by traveling - near and far;
interaction with people of different cultures; different geographical areas;
different occupations, different ways of life; different outlooks. Undoubtedly,
many possibilities exist that are not often implemented even though they could
make the teaching and learning process more effective and more beneficial by
providing a variety of experiences and alternative strategies for adaptation to
students’ characteristics.
Ability levels and patterns of different abilities. Presently, the practice
in some schools is to adapt teaching to different ability levels by forming
classes or groups of students of similar levels (usually based on achievement
tests or psychological tests) taught by teachers who tend to treat the students
as if they were in homogeneous groups. Obviously, once a group of two students
is formed, it cannot be considered homogeneous. Even if the two have an
identical IQ, for instance, the profile of different abilities can be quite
dissimilar and many other personality characteristics add to the dissimilarity
of the students’ attributes that affect their learning. The over-simplification
of today’s ways of adaptation to students’ differences in abilities and other
characteristics has resulted in many difficulties in the academic performance
of many students. In some cases this has led to phenomena such as, “learning
disabilities”, “conduct problems”, “attitude problems”, “anxiety and school
phobias”. The complexity of this issue is apparent as one considers results of
research studies or surveys measuring students’ performance under conditions
aimed at “slow” versus “fast” learners. The differences evident in rate of
learning are only one aspect of the diverse effects of students with different
abilities studying under different conditions. For instance, the type and
manner of teaching has differential effects: students with higher ability tend
to perform better under non-directive teaching methods while those with lower
ability tend to do better under directive methods.
Furthermore, the multiplicity and differentiality of mental abilities must
be taken into consideration when teaching at any level of the education system.
There has been a growing acknowledgement of the importance of adapting teaching
to a variety of intelligences (e.g. Gardner’s work on the seven intelligences
and Sternberg’s work on the triarchic dimensions of intelligence; also see
Goleman’s work on emotional intelligence), as well as providing for special
learning needs.
The diversity of patterns of mental abilities is well recognized today, yet
little has been done to develop adequate conditions aimed at adapting teaching
to this diversity. It is possible to design instructional strategies and
learning materials that provide options and flexibility for matching students’
particular patterns of abilities. Thus, teaching strategies can be
differentially facilitating various ability patterns. The interaction between
specific aptitudes and specific teaching styles can be important in considering
the various options of implementing changes in the teaching and learning
process. Also, matching teachers’ styles with students’ ability patterns can
have significant effects on students’ attitudes, motivation, and achievements.
Learning styles and preferences affect the way students approach any task
and the way they function under different conditions and different learning
environments. Learning styles such as reflectivity/impulsivity,
field-dependence/field-independence, and mental self-government, as well as
preferences for interactive visual or auditory presentations, or other ways of
representing information have effects on students’ academic performance (See
Kagan’s work on impulsive and reflective cognitive styles, Witkin’s work on
field dependent style, Sternberg’s work on mental self-government styles, and
the work on computer simulations preferences). Some educators have begun to
acknowledge the importance of adapting teaching strategies to students
different learning styles, but no earnest efforts have been devoted to this
promising endeavor. The adaptation of teaching to learning styles may include
not only more appropriately differentiated teaching strategies but also may add
to the dependability of the evaluation measures of what students have learned.
Thus, the effectiveness of teaching and the pertinence of the assessment of
learning achievements can be enhanced by teachers’ adaptation of instructional
strategies to students learning styles.
Personality Characteristics. To some extent there is recognition among
educators that personality characteristics such as self-reliance, attitudes,
anxiety, independence, emotional stability have differential effects on
students learning achievements. There is some acknowledgement that attention
should be paid to students personality needs and to particular aspects of
students different cultural backgrounds. Nevertheless, while the effect of
personality characteristics on learning is significant, very little has been
done or even suggested regarding the adaptation of teaching to students
different personality traits and needs. Among the reasons for that is the very
large number of traits with a wide variety of tests to measure them and the
problem of their lower validation than the ability tests. Also, the complexity
of the interactions of personality characteristics with various other factors
affecting learning seems too difficult to tackle. Many educators and
educational administrators are convinced that it is very difficult to implement
multi-dimensional teaching strategies in the classroom. However, it is possible
to analyze the interactions between students’ and teachers’ characteristics and
closely examine the resulting different learning outcomes. For example,
students of higher ability levels who are also self-reliant, independent, with
lower anxiety tend to do better under divergent teaching and self-directed
learning conditions, while students of lower ability levels who are also
dependent, and anxious, tend to do better under convergent teaching with clear
structure and much direction. Such interactions need to be explored further to
find more about the various factors affecting the teaching learning process.
The outcomes of such exploration can be very helpful in the search for enhancing
teaching effectiveness and students achievements.
In sum, the attempts to match teaching strategies with students
characteristics may become critical steps toward dealing with some of the
particularly difficult problems of the teaching and learning process.
Admittedly, many difficulties are faced not only by teachers but also by
administrators and policy makers in the endeavor to adapt instructional
strategies to students characteristics, but the methods and concepts of the
field of complex systems can provide ways of implementing such changes in the
attempts to introduce reforms to the education system.
Inter-Disciplinary Curriculum
One of the most exciting developments in the world of science today is the
growing involvement of researchers in interdisciplinary collaborations, and the
increase in cross-fertilization of ideas and research endeavors of people in
different fields of science.. The benefits for cross-disciplinary scientific
work are invaluable and the various application possibilities are promising not
only for science but for many aspects of daily living.
These developments have direct implications for the education system. The
tendency in our schools is to teach bits and pieces of information related to
particular disciplines. In view of the cross-disciplinary trends, the
curriculum can be integrated around topics that reflect the patterns,
interactions, and interdependencies of the different fields. This can provide
students with ways to study and attempt to comprehend the world around them
through concepts and ideas that are less disparate or disconnected.
The growing inter-disciplinary collaborations and cooperative sharing of
information from different fields and the efforts to find pragmatic solutions
to global problems have further implications for education. There are important
implications for the preparation of students to function and be productive in a
world with diverse populations, different economic conditions, multitudes of
cultural, religious and ethnic groups, and many other different factors.
Furthermore, it is highly beneficial to begin early in the educational process
to organize learning around problem solving, critical thinking, and dealing
with issues arising from different fields of study and different aspects of real
life conditions.
An integrated, inter-disciplinary curriculum links a variety of learning
subjects as they are related to the topics of integrated curriculum units. The
emphasis on connecting and synthesizing information around topics of interest
to the students provides favorable conditions for the acquisition of knowledge
from different disciplines through congruous concepts and ideas. Integrated
curriculum units are chosen by the students with the teacher and involve teams
of students working cooperatively toward common goals. Small groups, pairs, or
individuals can work on relevant tasks and materials that can be shared with
the other students and yield peer-to-peer learning. Experiencing the benefits
of contributing to the goals of the unit by members of the team is empowering
and gratifying and is also a beneficial way of preparing them for future
functioning in the world. Moreover, the opportunity given to each student to
capitalize on his/her strengths can become a strong motivating factor in pursuing
further learning and further giving to others.
In terms of teaching strategies, an integrated curriculum encourages a
multi-dimensional approach to the educational process and tends to combine
regularly multi-convergent and divergent strategies of teaching. There are also
various options in the way teachers are assigned to classroom teaching.
Individual teachers may find it difficult to implement multi-dimensional
strategies in teaching any class, even when small in size, but teachers can
work in teams using different teaching strategies compatible with individual
teachers’ particular capabilities, cognitive styles and personality
characteristics.. They can also organize various teaching experiences with the
assistance of volunteers, specialists, peers and others who could contribute to
the teaching process. In terms of the structure and settings adapted to
different teaching and learning conditions, there can be alternative places for
learning, e.g. learning centers, laboratories, libraries, outdoors, community
institutions and businesses, museums, and various organizations.
The structure and organization of the student body can be in the form of
small and large groups; study pairs; and individualized study arrangements.
Social alternatives are possible in heterogeneous groups with a great deal of
interchange within them and between them and other groups. Clearly, student
groups may vary in age, cultural and socioeconomic background, special
interests and special needs.
There are various alternatives in the types of learning that an integrated
curriculum can include:
Required subjects and basic academic skills some of which are taught in a
convergent way, using, in addition to teachers’ didactic presentations,
programmed instruction, multi-media technologies, computer programs, videos,
and other techniques involving technological innovations.
A number of required subjects and academic skills can be taught in a
multi-convergent way where methods of teaching are adapted to students’
different abilities, needs and interests. For example, different intelligences
may be emphasized such as, linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical
intelligence, spatial intelligence, musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence, and others.
A major part of the program can be devoted to integrated inter-disciplinary
curriculum units chosen by teachers and students together. These units enable
students to acquire knowledge and skills associated with different disciplines
through congruous meaningful learning revolving around a topic of interest to
the students. The work on the units is undertaken by groups of students who are
encouraged to take active part in the decision-making process and focus on
aspects of the units in which they can best develop their capabilities, satisfy
their interests, and fulfill their needs. Each student is given the opportunity
to use their strengths (academic or non-academic) to contribute to the common
goals of the group. In working on these integrated units, guided divergent
teaching is used as needed. At the end of a period of work on the unit, the
group can celebrate with other students, parents, administrators and others
involved in the school, the conclusion and accomplishments of the work on the
unit. Each student in the group is encouraged to contribute whatever they can
to such celebrations by presenting their work through various performances,
presentations, exhibits, videos and other contributions to the festive
activities. Such celebrations can become useful ways of evaluating the
students’ learning achievements
Individually chosen projects where the students can work on topics they
have chosen and where they could apply their strong skills and competencies,
wherever they lie. Students can be encouraged to present their work on their
project to the group in any way compatible with their tendencies. The students
can present their work to their peers and teachers as an exhibit, as an oral
presentation, as written material, as a play, a video, or any other means of
communicating and disseminating information. Divergent teaching is the approach
used for those individually selected, and often independently pursued,
projects.
The above discussion of ways to implement various changes in the approach
to teaching and learning grew out of the recognition that the current attempts
at reforming the education system tend to be ineffectual. The attempts to use
simple large forces (such as standardized testing, for example) in dealing with
the ills of the complex education system are essentially doomed to fail.
Undoubtedly, there are no simple general solutions to those multifarious
complex problems.
The above suggestions of some different possibilities of implementing
changes, stem from the conviction that such special, differentiated approaches
can be very beneficial and can have significant positive effects on the
teaching and learning process in our education system.